An interesting article appeared in the New Yorker earlier this month about the process of politics. Digging under the hood of democratic politics, it tries to explore two strains of forces that in real life can be di-opposed: rough and tumble democracy v. good governance and social policy.
(To be translated) 中国的民主化现代化
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能否举出一个例子来驳倒这位高级研究员?
中央党校《学习时报》发表了瑞士日内瓦大学亚洲研究中心高级研究员张维为的文章,在“知名的马歇尔论坛”舌战群儒,他说“我走访了一百多个国家”,“就是没有找到发展中国家通过民主化而实现了现代化的例子”,在场的欧美学者找不出一个例子来驳倒他。
我看到这个命题时,第一个念头就是“亚洲四小龙”,但又一想,不对,这些国家都是先具有了一定水平的现代化之后,才进行民主化转型的。以它们为例,恐怕不妥。
多维博客藏龙卧虎,求教各位,是否能举出适当的国家为例(哪怕只有一例),证明可以先民主化再现代化,或者至少是二者并行?
反思西方民主
张维为
2007年6月下旬在慕尼黑郊外的一个风景如画的避暑山庄,知名的马歇尔论坛举行了一场中国问题研讨会,由我主讲中国的崛起及其国际影响。讲完之后的讨论很有意思。一个欧洲学者问我:“您认为中国什么时候可以实现民主化?”我反问:“您的民主化概念怎么界定?”他颇有点不耐烦:“这很简单:一人一票、普选、政党轮替”,说完还补充了一句:“至少这是我们欧洲的价值观”。我表示完全理解和尊重欧洲价值观,但我随即问他:“您有没有想到中国也有自己的价值观,其中之一就是实事求是,英文叫做seek truth from facts(从事实中寻找真理)”,我接着说:“我们从事实中寻找了半天,就是没有找到发展中国家通过您所说的这种民主化而实现了现代化的例子。我走访了一百多个国家,还没有找到”。我随即客气地请他提供一个这样的例子。他一下子回答不上来。我说:“您可以想一下,
再告诉我”。这时,一个美国学者举手,大声说:“印度”。我问他:“您去过印度吗?”他说:“没有”,我说:“我去过两次,而且从北到南,从东到西都去过。我的感觉是印度比中国要落后至少20年,甚至30年。我在孟买和加尔各答两个城市里看到的贫困现象比我在中国20年看到的加在一起都要多。”
他不吱声了。这时刚才提问的那个学者说:“博茨瓦纳?”我问:“你去过没有?”他说:“没有”。我说,“我去过,还见过博茨瓦纳总统。那是一个人口才170万的小国。博茨瓦纳确实实行了西方民主制度,而且没有出现过大的动乱。这个国家资源非常丰富,民族成分相对单一,但即使有这么好的条件,博茨瓦纳至今仍是一个非常贫穷的发展中国家,人均寿命不到40岁”。“那么哥斯达黎加呢?”另一位学者问。我还是反问:“你去过这个国家吗?”回答也是“没有”。我说:“我2002年访问了这个国家。那也是一个小国,人口才400多万。相对于中美洲其他国家,哥斯达黎加政治比较稳定,经济也相对繁荣。这个国家90%以上的人口是欧洲人的后裔,各方面的起点不低。可惜哥斯达黎加至今仍是一个相当落后的国家,而且贫富差距很大,人口中百分之二十还处于贫困状态,首都圣何塞给人的感觉更像个大村庄,有很多的铁皮屋、贫民窟”。
我看大家似乎一时举不出其他例子,我就干脆反问:“要不要我举出西方民主化模式在发展中国家不成功的例子?举10个、20个、还是 30个?还是更多?”我简单谈了一下美国创建的民主国家菲律宾,美国黑人自己在非洲创立的民主国家利比里亚,美国家门口的海地,还有今天这个倒霉的伊拉克。
听众一些人开始点头,一些人摇头,但就是没有人起来反驳。我便再追问了一个问题:“在座的都来自发达国家,你们能不能给我举出一个例子,不用两个,说明一下哪一个今天的发达国家是在实现现代化之前,或者在实现现代化的过程之中搞普选的?”还是没有人回答。我说:“美国黑人的投票权到 1965年才真正开始的。瑞士是到了1971年,所有的妇女才获得了投票权,瑞士才实现了真正意义上的普选。如果要推动西方式的民主化,西方自己首先要向别人解释清楚为什么你们自己真正的民主化过程,毫无例外,都是渐进的,都是在现代化之后才实现的?这个问题研究透了,我们就有共同语言了”。
我还顺便讲了一个自己的假设:“如果中国今天实行普选会是一种什么样的结果呢?假如万幸中国没有四分五裂,没有打起内战的话,我们可能会选出一个农民政府,因为农民的人数最多。我不是对农民有歧视,我们往上追溯最多三、四代,大家都是农民。我们不会忘记我们自己农民的根,我们不歧视农民,不歧视农村来的人。但是连领导过无数次农民运动的毛泽东主席都说过:严重的问题在于教育农民。一个农民政府是无法领导一个伟大的现代化事业的,这点你们比我还要清楚”。
这时一个不服气的学者说:“民主本身就是神圣的,崇高的,这是普世价值,中国应该接受”。我说:“民主是普世价值,但西方这种民主形式是不是普世价值,还很有争议。你们为什么不能更自信一点呢?如果你们的制度那么好,人家迟早都会来向你们学习。但如果以普世价值的名义,强行在世界推广你们的制度,甚至为此而不惜使用武力,那就过份了。看一看今天伊拉克,据英国广播公司最新的报道,巴格达市的居民开始用‘人间地狱’来形容他们的城市,但天真的美国人以为伊拉克人民都会拿着鲜花去欢迎他们呢。”
当时因为还有其他许多有意思的问题,民主化的问题就没有继续讨论下去。实际上任何人只要花点时间读上几本西方民主理论的入门书,就会知道西方大部分的民主理论大师,从孟德斯鸠到熊彼特,都不赞成为民主而民主,都认为民主是一种程序,一种制度安排,一种游戏规则,其特点是“有限参与”,而不是“无限参与”。当然也有像卢梭这样的理想主义者,呼唤人民主权,不停地革命,但法国为此付出了异常沉重的代价,最后实现的也不是卢梭期望的目的民主,而是工具民主。
2006年,我曾在美国《国际先驱论坛报》上发表一篇评论,谈到西方强行输出自己的民主模式给发展中国家带来的问题:西方“意识形态挂帅,推行大规模的激进的民主化,无视一个地方的具体情况,把非洲和不甚发达的地方看成是西方体制可以自然生根的成熟社会。在宽容的政治文化和法治的社会形成之前,就推行民主化,其结果往往令人沮丧,甚至是灾难性的”。
美国宾州大学教授爱德华•曼斯菲尔德和哥伦比亚大学教授杰克•施奈德最近出版了一本著作《选举到厮杀:为什么新兴民主国家走向战争》(Electing to Fight: Why Emerging Democracies
Go to War)。书中的基本观点是:走向西方民主模式的这个过程最容易引起内部冲突或外部战争,因为政客们只要打“民粹”牌就容易得到选票,整个20世纪90年代里,许多国家举行自由选举后,便立即进入战争状态:亚美尼亚和阿塞拜疆开打、厄瓜多尔和秘鲁开打、埃塞俄比亚和厄立特里亚开打,还有布隆迪-卢旺达的大屠杀,导致1百多万人丧生,当然还有南斯拉夫令人痛心的分裂和战争,我去年访问了前南斯拉夫所有的国家,光是波斯尼亚战争中死亡的人数最保守的估计都超过10万人,成为欧洲第二次世界大战后死亡人数最多的战争。多少罪恶都是以推动普世价值的名义犯下的。
再看看中国,走自己的路,在不到30年的时间里,保持了稳定,经济规模扩大了十倍,人民生活普遍提高,虽然仍存有各种问题,有些还相当严重,但中国的崛起,整个世界有目共睹,大多数中国人也对国家的前途表示乐观。中国的相对成功为中国赢得了宝贵的话语权,这种话语权就是可以和西方平起平坐地讲道理,你有理,我听你的,你没理,你听我的。要是都听西方的,中国早就解体了。
在民主化这个问题上也是这样,西方还是没有摆脱“唯我正统,别人都是异教”的思维模式,这种思维模式在历史上曾导致了无数次战争, 几乎毁灭了西方文明本身,西方本可以从中悟出很多道理,但是西方,特别是美国似乎还没有从中汲取足够的教训。如果西方真心想要在发展中国家推动民主,就应该认真总结自己民主发展的历史,其中一个关键问题就是民主化的顺序,西方原生态的民主社会自己演变的顺序大致可以这样概括:一是经济和教育的发展,二是市民文化和法治社会的建设,最后才是民主化。这个顺序搞错了,一个社会往往要付出沉重的代价。现在西方却要求第三世界在民主化上一步到位,把最后一步当作第一步,或者三步合为一步,不出乱子才怪呢。
世界在进步,民主也不再是西方的垄断和特权,新技术革命又为民主提供了各种新的手段,其他非西方文化传统的国家完全有可能,而且也应该探索自己独特的民主发展道路。作为后来者,中国在自己民主建设的过程中,应从过去发达国家和今天第三世界的民主实践中汲取有益的经验和深刻的教训,超越西方那种狭隘的、僵化的民主观,推动符合中国国情的、渐进而又深入的政治体制改革,争取最终后来居上,建立一个繁荣与和谐的新型民主社会。
(本文作者系瑞士日内瓦大学亚洲研究中心高级研究员,原载《学习时报》2008年1月14日)
The value of public opinion does not depend on its correctness per se
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- 民意被过滤比民意非理性更可怕 The filtering of public opinion is scarier than irrational public opinions
- 民意考核官员,怎么考 Use public opinion to evaluate job performances of government officials, how?
- 网络民调不能代替现实征询民意 Internet based public opinion survey is no substitute for in person inquires
Hopefully, such translations would give readers a stronger sense of (often quite lively and sometimes idealistic) discussions of politics, democracy, etc. in the Chinese media.
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(Letter) Where does China fit in the West’s understanding of the world?
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Guangdong provincial party secretary Wang Yang started a mini-landslide of his own, when 3 days ago he spoke to a group of Communist Party cadres at a training course (连接):
We must make democracy a value to be pursued. In governing, we must make sure we use democracy, defend democracy, secure democracy, and develop democracy. We must be sufficiently respectful of, and also open up expressions of popular opinion. We absolutely can not block popular opinion, and form a “bottleneck-on-speech lake” (言塞湖). We must use democratic methods to continuously improve and expand democracy within the Party, and push forward social democracy. We must self-consciously nurture democratic habits, learn to listen and tolerate, and use democratic methods to unite people.
Beijing will set up specially designated zones for protesters during next month’s Olympics … Liu Shaowu, director for security for the Beijing Olympic organizing committee, said Wednesday that areas in at least three public parks near outlying sporting venues have been set aside for use by demonstrators.
Lee Kuan Yew lashes out at critical human rights groups
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Mr. Lee charged such criticisms as “a conspiracy to do [Singapore] in” because Singapore was viewed a threat by those critics.
Explaining why these groups regarded Singapore as a threat, he said it was because they saw that the Russians and Chinese have been coming and studying Singapore’s success story and picking up pointers.
Guiyang party secretary selection has a democratic flavor
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What exactly is the experiment? It’s not Western democracy, but it’s also not business as usual. A CCTV report (video below) explains the process:
- 82 candidates were publicly nominated for the four positions; 81 of them passed the initial screening process.
- a conference made up of “responsible figures” in the Guiyang city government, and Party representatives from different industries select five candidates for each position, 20 candidates in all.
- these 20 candidates appeared at a public conference, widely broadcast via TV and internet, and were graded for their performance. The candidates gave speeches, debated, and answered questions posed by the public.
- the 8 candidates (two per district) with the highest grades were selected to go on. The grading is broken down this way: “democratic nomination” (20%), “research report” (20%), “public speech and debate” (20%), “public opinion” (30%), “estimate of leadership capability” (10%).
- the final selection between these two candidates per district is made by the local People’s Congress.
The Prospects of Democracy in China
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And even within China, between different provinces and peoples are tremendous psychological differences, perhaps even greater than those between two countries. As time has passed, as the people’s living standards have grown and as awareness of personal rights has woken… if the traditional methods of political pressure and thought control are used, it’s already become very difficult to maintain the China unity and a sense of belong to the Chinese people. The government has observed this point, but unless it implements effective political reform that respects and tolerates the interests of different groups of people, it will not resolve this fundamental problem simply by waving the worn-down flags of patriotism and nationalism.
I don’t think we disagree on this point, but I think Youzi goes a bit far to berate some of us for suggesting that an “awareness of personal rights” alone and a shallow understanding of “fighting for personal rights” without civic values and respect for law is a recipe for disaster. It’s a two way street. What makes “Western-style democracy” tick isn’t the prescription of “freedom, democracy, and rule of law”, but the deeply ingrained sense in every single citizen that their interests lie in their responsibility to and stewardship of the country, its institutions, and values, of which such rights are a part — in short, true patriotism. That prevents people from ripping the constitution apart when they don’t get their way. Sad to say, China isn’t there yet.
So what are “effective political reform that respects and tolerates the interests of different groups of people” at this stage? Well, there is a model and there is dynamics. Nobody is sitting idly on their hands. I want to direct our readers to this article in Foreign Affairs earlier this year titled
Long Time Coming – The Prospects of Democracy in China.
I posted it weeks ago in a comment but it really deserves its own highlight here.
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The Chinese debate – Part 2: Democracy and the economy
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I also want to send a few sentences to Mr. Wahaha: please do not so easily “represent” the Chinese or the Chinese government. I don’t know if you’re an oversea student or overseas Chinese, but regardless of China is strong or small, it doesn’t have anything to do with you having greater face and authority in the face of Westerners. Furthermore, China’s economic growth is the result of hard work by Chinese citizens, and not the government’s charity; our lives are improving, because these are the returns from our own work, not because of a government or certain political party has bestowed them on us.
Now, we get to a topic that has nothing to do with Western media and being overseas. Now we get to a topic that has to do only with being “left” or “right”, being a supporter or opponent of the current Chinese government. This topic should be kept separate from the topic above.
Let me start by sending a few sentences to you, Traveler: please do not so easily assume that we hope for a strong China because we need “face”. I will not speak for Wahaha, but many of us are extremely successful, and do not need to borrow face from anyone. We can silence ourselves on China tomorrow, and we will not suffer for it. We can cut ourselves off from China tomorrow, and no one in the United States will force us back. Here’s a bit of advice for you if you ever come to the West, and are embarrassed by an association with the Chinese: if nothing else, we can always pretend to be Japanese. No one in the West could possibly know the difference
Comments on Democracy and China
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